English Coinage of the Tudors

[Deeman]

Philip and Mary half-angel

The half-angel had a value of 5/-, at a weight of 40 grains, 0.0833oz troy at 0.995 fine (23.875ct), with a diameter of 19-20mm. The designs and inscriptions are reduced versions of those of the angel.




1554-58 half angel, lis initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is PHILIP z MARIA D' G' REX z REGI', pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD z EST MIR', pellet stops.

[Deeman]

Philip and Mary pattern halfcrown

A pattern halfcrown with the busts of Philip (obverse) and Mary (reverse) was struck in 1554, without mark of value and without initial mark.

The obverse portrayed a profile, cuirassed, bearded bust of Philip facing right with large crown above and date below, within a circumscription starting and finishing at the crown translating to 'Philip, by the Grace of God, king of England, France, Naples and prince of Spain. The reverse portrayed a profile bust of Mary with head covering and ruff facing left with large crown above flanked by the date, within a circumscription starting and finishing at the crown translating to 'Mary, by the Grace of God, queen of England, France, Naples and princess of Spain. They were married at Winchester Cathedral on the 25 Jul 1554.




1554 dated pattern halfcrown.
Obverse inscription is PHILIPVS D G R ANG FR NEAP PR HISP, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is MARIA D G R ANG FR NEAP PR HISP, pellet stops.

[Deeman]

Philip and Mary shilling

The Philip and Mary shilling is the largest English coin on which the king and queen have portraits that face each other. The first coin ever to depict the king and queen together is the Stephen and Matilda penny dating from the mid-12th century.

The shilling had a weight of 96 grains, 0.2oz troy at 0.916 fine, with a diameter of 31mm. The design depicts the profile, cuirassed, bearded bust of Philip facing right and the profile bust of Mary with head covering and ruff facing left, with large crown above, all within a circumscription normally translating to 'Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God, king and queen of England, France, Naples and prince and princess of Spain,' but sometimes only with English titles. The reverse depicts an oval garnished shield with the quartered arms of Spain and England, with crown above which maybe flanked by the value in Roman numerals (XII), within a circumscription starting and finishing at the crown of POSUIMUS DEUM ADJUTOREM NOSTRUM translating to 'We have made God our helper' (plural of POSUI DEUM ADJUTOREM MEUM, 'I have made God my helper' from Psalms 54:4).




1554-58 undated shilling, full titles and value.
Obverse inscription is PHILIP ET MARIA D G R ANG FR NEAP PR HISP, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is POSVIMVS DEVM ADIVTOREM NOSTRVM, pellet stops.




1554-58 undated shilling, full titles, no value.
Obverse inscription is PHILIP ET MARIA D G R ANG FR NEAP PR HISP, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is POSVIMVS DEVM ADIVTOREM NOSTRVM, pellet stops.




1554 dated shilling, full titles.
Obverse inscription is PHILIP ET MARIA D G R ANG FR NEAP PR HISP, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is POSVIMVS DEVM ADIVTOREM NOSTRVM, pellet stops.




1555 dated shilling, English titles only.
Obverse inscription is PHILIP ET MARIA D G REX ET REGINA ANG, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is POSVIMVS DEVM ADIVTOREM NOSTRVM, pellet stops.




1554-58 undated shilling, English titles only.
Obverse inscription is PHILIP ET MARIA D G REX ET REGINA ANGL, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is POSVIMVS DEVM ADIVTOREM NOSTRVM, pellet stops.




1554 dated shilling, date below busts, English titles only. (Extremely rare.)
Obverse inscription is PHILIP ET MARIA D G REX ET REGINA ANG, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is POSVIMVS DEVM ADIVTOREM NOSTRVM, pellet stops.




1558 dated shilling, date below busts, English titles only missing ANG. (Extremely rare.)
Obverse inscription is PHILIP ET MARIA D G REX ET REGIN, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is POSVIMVS DEVM ADIVTOREM NOSTRVM, pellet stops.

[Deeman]

Philip and Mary sixpence

The sixpence had a weight of 48 grains, 0.1oz troy at 0.916 fine, with a diameter of 27mm. The design and inscriptions follow those of the shilling except for the value given as VI.




1554 dated sixpence, full titles.
Obverse inscription is PHILIP ET MARIA D G R ANG FR NEAP PR HISP, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is POSVIMVS DEVM ADIVTOREM NOSTRVM, pellet stops.




1557 dated sixpence, lis initial mark both sides, English titles only.
Obverse inscription is PHILIP z MARIA D G REX z REGINA AN, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is POSVIMVS DEVM ADIVTOREM NOS, pellet stops.

[Deeman]

Philip and Mary groat

The groat had a weight of 32 grains, 0.0667oz troy at 0.916 fine, with a diameter of 24mm. The obverse depicts a crowned profile bust of the queen facing left within a circumscription, commencing with an initial mark, translating to 'Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God, king and queen.' The reverse design is a long cross fourchée surmounted by a square-topped shield bearing the Royal Arms. The circumscription divided across the quadrants of the cross, commencing with an initial mark, is POSUIMUS DEUM ADJUTOREM NOSTRUM or abbreviation thereof which translates to 'We have made God our helper.'




1554-58 groat, lis initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is PHILIP ET MARIA D G REX ET REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is POSVI / MVS DE / VM ADIV / TO NOS, pellet stops.

[Deeman]

Philip and Mary half-groat

The half-groat had a weight of 16 grains, 0.0333oz troy at 0.916 fine, with a diameter of 19-20mm. Design and inscriptions follow the groat.




1554-58 half-groat, lis initial mark both sides. (Extremely rare.)
Obverse inscription is PHILIP ET MARIA D G REX ET REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is POSVI / M DEV / M ADIV / TO NOS, pellet stops.

[Deeman]

Philip and Mary penny

The penny had a weight of 8 grains, 0.916 fine, with a diameter of 14-15mm. The obverse depicts a crowned bust of Mary facing left within a circumscription which translates to 'Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God, a rose without thorns.' The reverse design is a long cross fourchée surmounted by a square-topped shield bearing the Royal Arms. The circumscription, divided across the quadrants of the cross, is CIVITAS LONDON, City of London.




1554-58 penny, lis initial mark both sides. (Very rare.)
Obverse inscription is P z M' D' G' ROSA SINE SPINE, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is CIVI / TAS / LON / DON.

[Deeman]

Philip and Mary base penny

The penny had a weight of 12 grains, 0.25 fine, with a diameter of 14mm. The obverse depicts a double petal rose within a circumscription which translates to 'Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God, a rose without thorns.' The reverse design is a long cross fourchée surmounted by a square-topped shield bearing the Royal Arms. The circumscription, divided across the quadrants of the cross, is CIVITAS LONDON, City of London. Used as a halfpenny.




1554-55 base penny, halved rose and castle initial mark on obverse.
Obverse inscription is P z M' D' G' ROSA SINE SPI, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is CIVI / TAS / LON / DON.

[Deeman]

Elizabeth I

Elizabeth I, Henry VIII's and Anne Boleyn's daughter, claimed the throne at the age of 25 after her half-sister's death in Nov 1558 and held it until her death 44 years later. She became known as the 'Virgin Queen' for her reluctance to endanger her authority through marriage. If she had chosen a foreign prince, he would have drawn England into foreign policies for his own advantages (as in her sister Mary's marriage to Philip of Spain); marrying a fellow countryman could have drawn the Queen into factional infighting. Elizabeth used her marriage prospects as a political tool in foreign and domestic policies. Her long reign coincided with the flowering of the English Renaissance, associated with such renowned authors as William Shakespeare. By her death in 1603, England had become a major world power in every respect, and Elizabeth I passed into history as one of England's greatest monarchs.

Her early life was full of uncertainties, and her chances of succeeding to the throne seemed very slight once her half-brother Edward was born in 1537. Bastardised by her father following the 1536 execution of her mother, Elizabeth spent her childhood at the mercy of the changing whims of her father, although he later passed an act restoring her to the line of succession. Upon Henry VIII's death in 1547, she was named third in the line of succession, eligible to rule only in the unlikely event that her siblings, Edward VI and Mary I, died without heirs. Which is precisely what happened. She only narrowly escaped execution in the wake of a failed rebellion against Mary in 1554. Thomas Wyatt had organised the rebellion against Mary in the hopes of making Elizabeth queen and restoring Protestantism to England. His plot was uncovered, and Mary quickly imprisoned Elizabeth. Although Elizabeth disputed any involvement in the conspiracy, her sister was not wholly convinced. Although she was soon released, Elizabeth's life was firmly in her sister's hands. Wyatt was executed, but he maintained that Elizabeth was not aware of the rebellion.

Elizabeth was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 15 Jan 1559 by Dr Oglethorpe, Bishop of Carlisle. The Archbishop of Canterbury would have performed this ceremony but the See was vacant at that time and the Archbishop of York refused to take the service. The ceremony was partly in the traditional Latin and partly in English.

Elizabeth faced a difficult situation with tension between different religious factions after Mary had worked to restore England to Roman Catholicism by any means necessary. Mary had earned herself the nickname 'Bloody Mary' for ordering the execution of 300 Protestants as heretics. One of the reasons Henry established the Church of England was to marry her mother, and she had been raised as a Protestant. In fact, many of the Protestants who had fled the country during Mary's reign returned to England when Elizabeth became queen. But at the same time, Elizabeth had inherited a largely Catholic government and Parliament, and she needed to work with them for the good of the country. The Catholic Church said Henry and Anne Boleyn had never been lawfully married. So, Elizabeth wasn't England's Queen - Mary Queen of Scots was. Mary was Elizabeth's cousin and an heir to the English throne through her Tudor grandmother, Margaret, Henry VIII's older sister.

Elizabeth acted swiftly to address the issue. She used Parliament to pass laws to create the Elizabethan Religious Settlement which was an attempt by Elizabeth to unite the country after the changes in religion under Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary I. It was designed to settle the divide between Catholics and Protestants and address the differences in services and beliefs. The settlement itself was written out in two Acts of Parliament, the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity in 1559. The Act of Supremacy made Elizabeth the Supreme Governor of the Church of England and ensured that the Roman Catholic Church had no say over the workings and beliefs of the Church of England. The Act of Uniformity reintroduced the Book of Common Prayer and set out what the English Church service should look like as well as setting out how the inside of churches should look. The Act also detailed what priests should wear too.

Elizabeth's settlement, also called the 'middle way,' was accepted by most of her subjects as the basis of their faith, and probably saved England from religious wars like those which France suffered in 1562. The Roman Catholic Church took a dim view of her actions, and in 1570, Pope Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth. A papal bull of 1570 specifically released Elizabeth's subjects from their allegiance, and Elizabeth passed harsh laws against Roman Catholics after plots against her life were discovered.

Elizabeth was very well-educated (fluent in five languages), and had inherited intelligence, determination and shrewdness from both parents. Although autocratic and capricious, Elizabeth had astute political judgement and chose her ministers well; these included William Cecil, later Lord Burghley (Secretary of State), Sir Christopher Hatton (Lord Chancellor) and Sir Francis Walsingham (in charge of intelligence and also a Secretary of State).

France was to be a constant thorn in the side of Elizabeth throughout her reign. England had lost the last of her territories in France during the reign of Mary, when Calais was lost. Therefore, France controlled the whole of the northern coastline and posed a major threat to England. A second major issue that had to involve France was the treatment of Mary Stuart, (Mary, Queen of Scots). Mary had been married to Francis II, King of France. His early death led to Mary returning to her native Scotland but she was still held in high regard in France and had many powerful supporters there. When Mary declared that she was the rightful heir to the English throne and that Elizabeth was illegitimate, she received support from France. None of this boded well for Anglo-French relations. France had given military help to Scotland during the ongoing problems between England and her northern neighbour. In fact, the only thing that seemed to help out England with regards to France was Spain. While England and Spain had a good relationship, France could not afford to antagonise England for fear that Spain might attack from the southwest. Likewise, France could not afford to attack Spain without risking a war on two fronts if England attacked from the north. Just two years into her reign, Elizabeth had a success against the French. The French had announced their intention to help the Scots defeat the revolt of the Lords of the Congregation. At the same time, the French stated that Mary was the rightful Queen of England. Rather than waiting for more French troops to land in Scotland, Elizabeth sent troops into Scotland and forced the French force at Leith to negotiate a settlement. In the Treaty of Edinburgh (6 Jul 1560) it was agreed that all English and French troops would withdraw from Scotland and that Mary Stuart would renounce her use of the coat of arms and title of England.

Escaping political unrest in Scotland, Mary fled to England in 1568 and was imprisoned by her cousin with no hint as to whether she would ever be released. Elizabeth's distrust of Mary continued and a number of plots against Elizabeth were uncovered. She was aware that many English Catholics wanted to depose her to allow Mary to become Queen of England. There was the Ridolfi plot of 1571 with the Duke of Norfolk implicated and rumours of help from Spanish troops. Norfolk was executed. The Throckmorton plot of 1583 was similar and this plot contributed to the Act of Association of 1585 after which, Mary would be held responsible for any plot carried out in her name – whether she knew of it or not. The Parry plot of 1585 was yet another assassination plot uncovered. William Parry had been working as a double agent for both the Elizabeth and Mary. Queen Elizabeth was informed that he had planned to kill her either in a private meeting or ambushing her. Parry was arrested for treason and hanged at Westminster. A year later, there was the Babington plot whereby Anthony Babington, an English Catholic nobleman, had made Mary aware of his plans to kill Elizabeth and help Mary escape. Mary replied to Babington in letters, explaining how she wanted France and Spain to help her become Queen by invading England. However, these letters were intercepted by Elizabeth's spy, Sir Francis Walsingham. Despite Elizabeth's reluctance to take drastic action, on the insistence of Parliament and her advisers, Mary was tried, found guilty and executed in 1587.

In 1585, Elizabeth entered the fray to support the Protestant rebellion against Spain in the Netherlands. Spain then set its sights on England, but the English navy was able to defeat the infamous Spanish Armada in 1588. Aided by bad weather, the English navy scored a great victory over the Spanish invasion fleet of around 130 ships. The Spanish Armada was intended to overthrow the Queen and re-establish Roman Catholicism by conquest, as Philip II believed he had a claim to the English throne through his marriage to Mary Tudor.

Elizabeth's reign also saw many brave voyages of discovery, including those of Francis Drake, Walter Raleigh and Humphrey Gilbert, particularly to the Americas. These expeditions prepared England for an age of colonisation and trade expansion, which Elizabeth herself recognised by establishing the East India Company in at the very end of 1599. Francis Drake grew up as a Puritan who hated Catholics and he was very anti-Spanish.

The arts flourished during Elizabeth's reign. Country houses such as Longleat and Hardwick Hall were built, miniature painting reached its high point, theatres thrived. The Queen attended the first performance of Shakespeare's 'A Midsummer Night's Dream'. Composers such as William Byrd and Thomas Tallis worked in Elizabeth's court and at the Chapel Royal, St. James's Palace.

During Elizabeth's long reign, the nation also suffered from high prices and severe economic depression, especially in the countryside, during the 1590s. The population rose by a million during the Elizabethan period. More people meant there was more demand for goods, and so prices rose, but wages fell as there were more people around to do the work. Woollen cloth was England's main export but there was a decline in demand and this led to unemployment. Taxes were increased to compensate for the price of waging war. Harvests were particularly bad in the 1590s leading to even higher demand and more rising prices. Many landlords decided to enclose their fields and keep sheep instead of growing crops which led to high unemployment.

Elizabeth's death, at Richmond Palace on 24 Mar 1603, was an occasion of universal mourning. Thousands of people turned out to see her funeral procession to the Abbey on 28 Apr 1603. The coffin, covered in purple velvet, was borne on a chariot drawn by four grey horses with black trappers. Her body was encased in lead within the wooden coffin and first buried in the vault of her grandfather King Henry VII (underneath his monument) in the Abbey. However, in 1606 Elizabeth's coffin was transferred to the Henry VII Chapel in Westminster Abbey, and placed beneath a monument to her erected by King James I. A monument to Mary, Queen of Scots, stands close by. The date of Elizabeth's accession was a national holiday for two hundred years.

[Deeman]

Elizabeth I coinage

When Elizabeth I came to power, she inherited one of the most debased coinages in history, which had damaged trade relations and the reputation of the monarchy. With no concept of 'national debt', monarchs often used 'creative' methods to raise cash. Henry VIII raised money by minting new coins that were made of base metals mixed with a little silver or gold, circulating them at the same face value as solid silver and gold coins. This debasing of England's coinage raised an enormous amount of money for Henry VIII's military ventures, but had adverse long-term effects.

As people caught on to the 'scam' at home, they started to hoard older coins with a higher content of precious metal, leaving the 'bad' money in circulation. Abroad, foreign bankers and vendors refused to accept English coinage and insisted on payment in gold. Both practices created a gold shortage at home, making it harder to source gold for minting new coins and for making foreign transactions.

On 31 Dec 1558 Elizabeth issued a commission authorising the striking of sovereigns (30/-), angels (10/-) and half-angels (5/-) in fine gold (0.995 fine) and pounds (20/-), half-pounds (10/-), crowns (5/-) and half-crowns (2/6) in crown gold (0.917 fine). No pound coins were struck. Mary had struck only fine gold and initially Elizabeth had followed suit. However, crown gold, which was a product of Henry VIII's debasement, last issued by Edward VI, entirely displaced fine gold in the mint output within four years presumably because its better wearing qualities commended it to the merchants.

In 1559 Elizabeth was informed that in market-places across the length and breadth of her kingdom people were now refusing to accept that the base shillings of Edward VI's second and third issues, which remained in circulation, at their 12d value. Elizabeth acted swiftly with an order to call in the offending coins and have them countermarked to indicate a lower value. Edward VI's second period 6oz and 8oz shillings were countermarked with a portcullis and given a 4½d value. Edward VI's third period 3oz shillings were countermarked with a seated greyhound and given the value 2¼d. All debased silver money was demonetised in 1561.

An indenture of 8 Nov 1560 established the terms of the silver recoinage which was to be struck the 11oz standard (0.917 fine) at a weight of 8 grains to a penny. Within a year the debased silver bearing her father's portrait that remained in circulation had been recalled, melted down, their base metal removed and replaced with newly minted Elizabethan coins of precious metal. The new silver coins were issued in four denominations - shilling, groat, half-groat and penny. The fineness was increased to 0.925 fine in 1561 and the striking of the sixpence, threepence, three-halfpence and three-farthings followed. The English shilling soon afterwards became the most sought-after coinage in international commerce.

A proclamation in 1561 reduced the nominal value of all current coins, both gold and silver. Sovereign was now to be current for 20/-, ryal for 10/-, angel for 6/8, half-angel for 3/4; half-pound for 6/8, crown for 3/4 and the halfcrown for 1/8. The shilling was reduced to 8d., the sixpence to 4d, the threepence to 2d., and the three halfpence to 1d. As the groats, half-groats, and pennies could not be reduced in value one by one, it was ordered that three groats should be current for 8d, and the others in proportion. Their values were restored in 1572.

After 1561, no 30/- sovereigns were produced until 1583. There was a noticeable shift in the denominations produced in silver in this coinage. Shillings were not produced until after 1582 and the groat was withdrawn as a denomination and not struck again (apart from Maundy money). The silver coins, produced in some quantity, comprised the sixpence, threepence, twopence, three-halfpence, penny and three-farthings. This last coin might at first sight seem a strange one, but it was a mechanism that allowed for the purchase of goods valued at one farthing, by paying with a penny and receiving a three-farthing coin in change. The minting of silver farthings would have been impractical given how tiny the coin would have needed to be. Additionally, the disproportionate expense of striking such small coins at the mint was uneconomic and a further impediment to their introduction. The three-halfpence was similar as it allowed one to buy goods for halfpence with twopence and receiving the appropriate change. Both the three-halfpence and three-farthings coins were discontinued in 1582. Given the fact that there were six denominations in this coinage and that shillings and groats of the first issue would have continued to be in circulation, the Mint visually differentiated coins of similar size from one another. A rose was placed behind the portrait of the queen on the sixpence, threepence, three-halfpence and three-farthings and on the reverse of these denominations the date of minting was placed above the shield. The other denominations were plain, resulting with a system of silver coins of descending value with identifying marks on alternative coins.

On 19 Dec 1578, a commission was made out, authorising slightly debased coinage. The gold became 0.992 fine instead of 0.995 fine, reducing the weight of an angel standard from 80 grains to 79.79 grains. The silver became 0.921 fine instead of 0.925 fine, reducing the weight of the shilling standard from 96 grains to 95.6 grains. In 1582-3, however, the old standards and weights were restored. In 1583-4, half-sovereigns and sovereigns, under the name of nobles of 15/- and double nobles of 30/-, were again ordered to be coined. In 1592/3 another commission was granted to recommence the coinage of 'crown gold' as ordered at the beginning of the reign.

On the 29 Jul 1601, the weight of the money both of gold and silver was reduced whilst retaining the fineness. Silver, previously at 8 grains per penny became7.74 grains and 'crown gold' previously at 174.5 grains became 172 grains for the pound. All other denominations were reduced in proportion.

Portcullis Money was introduced in 1600. Elizabeth chartered the East India Company and granted it a monopoly. The company largely traded on the Indian subcontinent. The unit was the dollar, divisible by 8 testerns. The coins were struck in silver in four denominations of 1, 2, 4, and 8 testerns in equivalent sizes and weights as the era's dominant trade coin, the Spanish real. As trade coins go, the issue was too little and too late.

In 1575/6 low denomination 'pledge' coinage was considered that could be used throughout the realm as an alternative to trader-issued halfpenny and farthing tokens that could only be used in establishments from whence they originated. Pledge coinage was again considered in 1601. Only patterns exist as none were issued.

Milled coinage

There was the innovation of milled coinage from 1561 to 1571, struck on the machinery of the Frenchman Elloye Mestrelle. He arrived from Paris with his family in 1559, and along with his sibling Philip was already a skilled engraver, having learnt how to make coins at the Moulin de Monnais, the French mint at Versailles. It is thought that he came to England to sell his skills to the Mint, as the Queen was concentrating her energy into the recoinage having ascended the throne the year before. He may well have lost employment engraving in France, having acquired a criminal record in respect of clipping or counterfeiting coin, as the first mention of him is in a pardon by Elizabeth of 24 Mar 1561 where he is forgiven for any treasons, felonies or offences before his arrival at the Mint dating before 1 Mar 1559. He seems to have secured a contract during 1560 at the Mint, and the first fruits of his experimental machine-made labour appear in late 1561.

The eventual coins were struck by a screw press method and the first denominations were the undated silver shilling, groat and half-groat, and a limited number of gold half-pounds and crowns perhaps produced to celebrate the Queen's visit to the Mint in July 1561. These silver denominations were then dropped in favour of new silver sixpences, threepences, three-halfpence and three-farthings, as of a new proclamation issued 15 Nov 1561, all featuring the rose behind the bust. The coins certainly pleased the Queen, because she awarded Mestrelle a modest royal pension of £25 a year.

Elloye worked within the Mint on and off over eight years, turning out thousands of fine coins of the realm. His coins were the best, but the number he made was small compared with those that were hammered by hand. But fortunes changed on 1 Sep 1568 when his brother Philip was arrested for counterfeiting Burgundian crowns and Elloye was implicated. In Jan the following year, Philip was convicted and hanged at Tyburn gallows. Eloy was luckier. He won a second pardon from the Queen and by 1570 was again minting coins in the Tower, although the evidence suggests that some of his equipment had been confiscated. His coins were never as smart as before—there was the odd reversed letter and a much poorer impression of the Queen.

The incumbent under-treasurer Stanley suddenly died in Dec 1571 and a new management, keen to save money, was installed at the mint. In an early time and motion study, Mestrelle was forced to justify the existence of his machinery by pitting it against the hand hammerers in a trial. The terms of the contest were simple: which technology could turn out blanks the fastest? In the hour it took two men using Mestrelle's equipment to make 22 blank sixpences, the hammerers produced 280. Mestrelle's career as a coin manufacturer was finished. His silver sixpences stayed in circulation for 130 years and became valuable as gaming counters. Shakespeare refers to them in the opening scene of The Merry Wives of Windsor, written between 1598 and 1600.

Coinage issues:

There were seven hammered coinage issues throughout Elizabeth's reign:
First issue 1559-60.
Second issue 1560-61.
Third issue 1561-72.
Fourth issues 1572-78.
Fifth issue 1578-82.
Sixth issue 1583-1600.
Seventh issue 1601-03.
The milled issue ran between 1561 and 1571.

Denominations by issue:

First issue:
Gold: sovereign, angel, half-angel, half-pound, crown, halfcrown.
Silver: shilling, groat, half-groat, penny.

Second issue:
Gold: sovereign, angel, half-angel, half-pound, crown, halfcrown.
Silver: shilling, groat, half-groat, penny.

Third issue:
Gold: angel, half-angel, quarter-angel, half-pound, crown, halfcrown.
Silver: sixpence, threepence, half-groat, three-halfpence, penny, three-farthings.

Fourth issue:
Gold: angel, half-angel, quarter-angel, crown, halfcrown.
Silver: sixpence, threepence, three-halfpence, penny, three-farthings.

Fifth issue:
Gold: angel, half-angel, quarter-angel.
Silver: sixpence, threepence, three-halfpence, penny, three-farthings.

Sixth issue:
Gold: sovereign, ryal, angel, half-angel, quarter-angel, pound, half-pound, crown, halfcrown
Silver: shilling, sixpence, twopence (half-groat), penny, halfpenny.

Seventh issue:
Gold: angel, pound, half-pound, crown, half-crown.
Silver: crown, halfcrown, shilling, sixpence, twopence (half-groat), penny, halfpenny.

Milled issue:
Gold (1561-70): half-pound, crown, halfcrown.
Silver (1561-71): shilling, sixpence, groat, threepence, half-groat, three-farthings.

Initial marks

The following initial marks were used:



Issues associated with initial marks:

First issue: lis.
Second issue: cross-crosslet; martlet.
Third issue: pheon (1561-65); rose (1565); portcullis (1566); lion (1566-67); coronet (1567-70); castle (1570-71).
Fourth issue: ermine (1572-73); acorn (1573-74); eglantine (1574-78).
Fifth issue: Greek cross (1578-79); Latin cross (1580-81); sword (1582).
Sixth issue: bell (1582-83); 'A' (1583-84); escallop (1584-86); crescent (1587-89); hand (1590-92); tun (1592-94); woolpack (1594-96); key (1596-98); anchor (1598-99); 'O' (1600).
Seventh issue: '1' (1601-02); '2' (1602).
Milled issue: star (1561-66); lis (1567-71).

[Deeman]

Elizabeth I 'fine' sovereign

The sovereign was struck in the first, second and sixth issues. It had a value of 30/- (20/-, 1561-72) at a weight of 240 grains, 0.5oz troy at 0.995 fine (23.875ct) with a 44mm diameter. The obverse depicts the queen with imperial crown, seated facing on a high-back throne with decorative side pillars and patterned back, robed and holding orb and sceptre, the Tudor symbol of portcullis at queen's feet, tressure of trefoils on inner circle divided by the back of the throne. The circumscription translates to 'Elizabeth, by the Grace of God, England, France and Ireland, queen'. The reverse design features a quartered shield of the Royal Arms within a double rose, symbolising the union of York and Lancaster after the Wars of the Roses. The Tudor rose is surrounded by a ten-arched double tressure divided into five two-crescent sections by the leaves of the emblem. The circumscription reads A DOMINO FACTUM EST ISTUD ET EST MIRABILE IN OCULIS NOTRIS or abbreviation thereof translating to 'This is the Lord's doing and it is marvellous in our eyes', Psalms 118:23.




1559-60 first issue sovereign, lis initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' / FRA' z HIB' RЄGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTV' EST ISTV z EST MIRA' IN OCVL' NRIS', pellet stops.




1560-61 second issue sovereign, cross-crosslet initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' / FRA' ET HIB' RЄGINA, pellet stops, chains on portcullis.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTV' EST ISTV ET EST MIRA' IN OCVL' NRIS', pellet stops.




1583-84 sixth issue sovereign, 'A' initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' / FRA' ET HIB' RЄGINA, pellet stops, chains on portcullis.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTV EST ISTVD ET EST MIRAB' IN OCVLIS NRS, pellet stops.




1584-86 sixth issue sovereign, escallop initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' / FRA' ET HIB' RЄGINA, pellet stops, chains on portcullis.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTV' EST ISTVD ET EST MIRAB' IN OCVLIS NRS', pellet stops.




1592-95 sixth issue sovereign, tun initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' / FRA' ET HIB' RЄGINA, pellet stops, chains on portcullis.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTV' EST ISTVD ET EST MIRAB' IN OCVL' NRS', pellet stops.

[Deeman]

Elizabeth I ryal

The ryal, which was struck in the sixth issue, had a value of 15/- at a weight of 120 grains, 0.25oz troy at 0.995 fine (23.875ct) with a 33mm diameter. The obverse depicts the crowned queen, seated facing holding sceptre and orb on a Tudor galleon, sail on the bowsprit, flag on the stern with the letter 'Є' and rose on the hull, all within a circumscription, interrupted by the vessel, translating to 'Elizabeth, by the Grace of God, England, France and Ireland, queen.' The reverse design is a rose upon a radiant sun, alternating crowned leopards and floriate cross terminals within a tressure of eight arches, trefoils in spandrels, all within a circumscription of IHC AVT TRANSIENS PER MEDIVM ILLOR IBAT or abbreviations thereof translating to 'But Jesus passing through their midst went His way', Luke 4:30.




1583-84 sixth issue ryal, 'A' initial mark on reverse.
Obverse inscription is ЄLI / ZAB' D' G' ANG' FRA' ЄT h / IB / RЄGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is IhS AVT TRAnSIЄnS PЄR mЄDIV' ILLORVm IBAT, pellet stops.




1584-86 sixth issue ryal, escallop initial mark on reverse.
Obverse inscription is ЄLI / ZAB' D' G' ANG' FRA' ЄT hI / B / RЄGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is IhS AVT TRAnSIЄnS PЄR mЄDIV' ILLORVm IBAT, pellet stops.




1587-89 sixth issue ryal, crescent initial mark on reverse.
Obverse inscription is ЄLI / ZABETH D' G' ANG' FRA' ЄT hI / B / RЄGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is IhS AVT TRAnSIЄnS PЄR mЄDIV' ILLORVm IBAT, pellet stops.

[Deeman]

Elizabeth I angel

The angel had a value of 10/-(6/8, 1561-72) at a weight of 80 grains, 0.167oz troy at 0.995 fine (23.875ct), with a diameter of 28mm. The fineness was slightly reduced to 0.992 for the fifth issue before reverting back to 0.995 on the sixth issue The obverse of the angel depicts archangel St. Michael, haloed and winged, standing with both feet on the dragon and piercing it through the mouth with a spear, the other end of which ends in a cross-crosslet which normally marks the termination of the circumscription which translates to 'Elizabeth, by the Grace of God, England, France and Ireland, queen.' The reverse design is an English galley normally with three ropes to the mast from the stern, two from the prow and with 'E' and a rose set below the main topmast, the ship surmounted by square-topped shield bearing the Royal Arms, all within a circumscription of A DOMINO FACTUM EST ISTUD ET EST MIRABILE IN OCULIS NOTRIS or abbreviation thereof translating to 'This is the Lord's doing and it is marvellous in our eyes', Psalms 118:23.




1559-60 first issue angel, lis initial mark both sides, wire line inner circles.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' FRA' z HIB' REGI', pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD z EST MIRABI', pellet stops.




1560-61 second issue angel, cross-crosslet initial mark both sides, beaded inner circles.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' FR' ET HIB' REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD ET EST MIRABI', pellet stops.




1572-73 fourth issue angel, bulbous ermine (snowdrop) initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' FR' z HI' REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD z EST MIRABI', pellet stops.




1574-78 fourth issue angel, eglantine initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' FR' ET HIB' REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD ET EST MIRABI', pellet stops.




1580-81 fifth issue angel, Latin cross initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' FR' ET HI' REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD ET EST MIRABI', pellet stops.




1582 fifth issue angel, sword initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' FR' ET HI' REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD ET EST MIRABI', pellet stops.




1582-83 sixth issue angel, bell initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' FR' ET HI' REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD ET EST MIRABI', pellet stops.




1596-98 sixth issue angel, key initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' FR' ET HI' REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD ET EST MIRA', pellet stops.




1602 seventh issue angel, '2' initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' FR' ET HIB' REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD ET EST MIRABI', pellet stops.

[Deeman]

Elizabeth I half-angel

The half-angel had a value of 5/- (3/4, 1561-72) at a weight of 40 grains, 0.0833oz troy at 0.995 fine (23.875ct), with a diameter of 19-20mm. Fineness varied like the angel. The designs and inscriptions are reduced versions of those of the angel.




1559-60 first issue half-angel, lis initial mark both sides, beaded inner circles.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG', FRA' z HIB', pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD z EST M', pellet stops.




1560-61 second issue half-angel, cross-crosslet initial mark both sides, beaded inner circles.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' FR' ET HIB' REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD ET EST MIRA', pellet stops.




1572-73 fourth issue half-angel, ermine (snowdrop) initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D G ANG FR ET HI REGIN, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD ET EST MIRA, pellet stops.




1574-78 fourth issue half-angel, eglantine initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D G ANG FR ET HI REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD ET EST MIRA, pellet stops.




1583-84 sixth issue half-angel, 'A' over bell initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG' FR' ET HI REGINA, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is A DNO FACTVM EST ISTVD ET EST MIRA', pellet stops.

[Deeman]

Elizabeth I quarter-angel

The quarter-angel was first struck in the third issue and had a value of 2/6 (1/8, 1561-72) at a weight of 20 grains, 0.0417oz troy at 0.995 fine (23.875ct), with a diameter of 17mm. Fineness varied like the angel. The designs are reduced versions of those of the angel, but the circumscriptions differ, whereby the reverse is a continuation of the obverse; ELIZABETH D G ANG FRANCIE on the obverse and ET HIBERNIE REGINA FIDEI on the reverse.




1573-74 fourth issue quarter-angel, acorn initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG', FRANCIE, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is ET HIBERNIE REGINA FIDEI, pellet stops.




1574-78 fourth issue quarter-angel, eglantine initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG', FRANCIE, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is ET HIBERNIE REGINA FIDEI, pellet stops.




1580-81 fifth issue quarter-angel, Latin cross initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D G ANG, FRANCIE, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is ET HIBERNIE REGINA FIDEI, pellet stops.




1582 fifth issue quarter-angel, sword initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D G ANG, FRANCIE, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is ET HIBERNIE REGINA FIDEI, pellet stops.




1587-89 sixth issue quarter-angel, crescent initial mark both sides.
Obverse inscription is ELIZABETH D' G' ANG', FRANCIE, pellet stops.
Reverse inscription is ET HIBERNIE REGINA FIDEI, pellet stops.